Two Oxen Ahead

Paul Halstead is Professor of Archaeology at the University of Sheffield, UK. He has edited and contributed to numerous publications, including Food, Cuisine and Society in Prehistoric Greece (with John Barrett, 2004), Neolithic Society in Greece (1999), and Bad Year Economics (with John O’Shea, 1989).

• Preface viiiAcknowledgments x1 Introduction: Mediterranean Farming between Longue Durée and Contingency 11.1 Fieldwork 31.2 Scales of Analysis 82 Working the Earth: Tillage and Sowing 112.1 Two-Oxen Households in Paliambela 142.2 Scratching a Living in the Hills of Messenia 192.3 Tillage Time and Sowing Season from Assiros to Asturias 212.4 Juggling with Seedcorn 282.5 Flexible Farmers 312.6 Ard, Hoe, and Scale of Cultivation 332.6.1 Ard versus hoe: Benefits 332.6.2 Ard versus hoe: Costs 472.6.3 On balance: Hoe or ard, cows or oxen? 552.7 Tillage and Sowing in the Past 573 Harvest Time 673.1 Amorgos: From Field to Threshing Floor 683.2 When to Reap 713.3 What and How to Reap 773.4 After Reaping: Binding, Drying, and Transporting the Harvest 893.5 Who and How Many to Reap 1023.6 Harvest Ceremonies 1123.7 Reaping in the Past 1134 Sorting the Wheat from the Chaff 1274.1 Amorgos: On and After the Threshing Floor 1274.2 Ways of Threshing 1364.3 Ways of Winnowing and Coarse Sieving 1514.4 Cleaning for Storage and Consumption 1544.5 Storage 1574.6 Consumption 1634.7 Questions of Scale: Labor and Time Stress 1664.8 Threshing Floor Customs 1734.9 Crop Processing in the Past 1745 Managing the Land: Coping with Failure and Planning for Success 1915.1 Watching the Corn Grow 1915.2 Planning for Success: Fallowing and Rotation 1995.2.1 Fallowing 1995.2.2 Crop rotation 2015.2.3 Fallowing and rotation in space 2065.2.4 Hedging bets: Mixed cropping 2105.3 Planning for Success: Manuring 2125.3.1 Stall manure 2135.3.2 Manuring by folded livestock 2265.3.3 Manuring by grazing livestock 2295.4 Planning for Success, Mitigating Failure: Irrigation 2305.5 Averting Failure: Weeding 2335.6 Crop Husbandry and Crop Yields 2385.7 Crop Husbandry and Yields in the Past 2446 Family Planning: Land, Labor and Livestock 2596.1 Clearance 2606.1.1 Uprooting deciduous woodland in lowland northern Greece 2606.1.2 Opening up the maquis in southern Greece 2646.1.3 Shifting cultivation: From Crete to Asturias 2676.1.4 Slashing, burning, and shifting 2696.2 Long-Term Improvement: Deep Tillage, Terracing, and Enclosure 2716.3 Extending and Improving Cultivable Land: Drainage and Irrigation 2776.4 Counting the Cost of Extension and Improvement 2816.5 Subsistence and Cash Crops 2836.6 Mixed Farming: Livestock 2896.7 Labor, Land, and Livestock: The Domestic Cycle 2956.8 Household and Community 3046.9 Land, Labor, and Livestock in the Past 3117 Homo agronomicus? Mediterranean Farming, Present and Past 3297.1 Analogies for the Past: “Matters of Fact” and “Matters of Interest” 3307.2 Cultural Reason 3327.3 Environmental and Technological Constraints 3367.4 Practical Reason: Costs, Benefits, and Knowledgeable Farmers 3387.5 Ancient Farmers: Knowledgeable and Rational? 3467.6 Farming in the Mediterranean: Analogy and Change 347Glossary 360Index 362

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