Design of Smart Power Grid Renewable Energy Systems

Ali Keyhani, PhD, is a Professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Ohio State University. He is a Fellow of the IEEE and a recipient of Ohio State University, College of Engineering Research Award for 1989, 1999, and 2003. He has worked for Columbus and Southern Electric Power Company, Hewlett-Packard Co., Foster Wheeler Engineering, and TRW.

• Preface xiiiAcknowledgments xviAbout the Companion Website xvii1 Energy and Civilization 11.1 Introduction: Motivation 11.2 Fossil Fuel 21.3 Energy Use and Industrialization 21.4 Nuclear Energy 41.5 Global Warming 51.6 The Age of the Electric Power Grid 91.7 Green and Renewable Energy Sources 101.8 Hydrogen 111.9 Solar and Photovoltaic 111.9.1 Wind Power 121.9.2 Geothermal 131.10 Biomass 131.11 Ethanol 131.12 Energy Units and Conversions 131.13 Estimating the Cost of Energy 171.14 New Oil Boom–Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking) 201.15 Estimation of Future CO2 211.16 The Paris Agreement | UNFCCC 221.17 Energy Utilization and Economic Growth 231.18 Conclusion 23Problems 24Further Reading 262 Power Grids 282.1 Introduction 282.2 Electric Power Grids 292.2.1 Background 292.2.2 The Construction of a Power Grid System 292.3 Basic Concepts of Power Grids 332.3.1 Common Terms 332.3.2 Calculating Power Consumption 332.4 Load Models 492.5 Transformers in Electric Power Grids 532.5.1 A Short History of Transformers 542.5.2 Transmission Voltage 542.5.3 Transformers 552.6 Modeling a Microgrid System 592.6.1 The Per Unit System 602.7 Modeling Three-Phase Transformers 692.8 Tap-Changing Transformers 722.9 Modeling Transmission Lines 74Problems 87References 923 Modeling of Converters in Power Grid Distributed Generation Systems 933.1 Introduction 933.2 Single-Phase DC/AC Inverters with Two Switches 943.3 Single-Phase DC/AC Inverters with a Four-Switch Bipolar Switching Method 1063.3.1 Pulse Width Modulation with Unipolar Voltage Switching for a Single-Phase Full-Bridge Inverter 1103.4 Three-Phase DC/AC Inverters 1133.5 Pulse Width Modulation Methods 1143.5.1 The Triangular Method 1143.5.2 The Identity Method 1193.6 Analysis of DC/AC Three-Phase Inverters 1203.7 Microgrid of Renewable Energy Systems 1303.8 DC/DC Converters in Green Energy Systems 1333.8.1 The Step-Up Converter 1343.8.2 The Step-Down Converter 1443.8.3 The Buck–Boost Converter 1513.9 Rectifiers 1563.10 Pulse Width Modulation Rectifiers 1603.11 A Three-Phase Voltage Source Rectifier Utilizing Sinusoidal PWM Switching 1633.12 The Sizing of an Inverter for Microgrid Operation 1673.13 The Sizing of a Rectifier for Microgrid Operation 1693.14 The Sizing of DC/DC Converters for Microgrid Operation 170Problems 171References 1764 Smart Power Grid Systems 1774.1 Introduction 1774.2 Power Grid Operation 1784.3 Vertically and Market-Structured Power Grid 1844.4 The Operations Control of a Power Grid 1874.5 Load Frequency Control 1874.6 Automatic Generation Control 1934.7 Operating Reserve Calculation 1984.8 Basic Concepts of a Smart Power Grid 1994.9 The Load Factor 2064.10 The Load Factor and Real-Time Pricing 2094.11 A Cyber-Controlled Smart Grid 2124.12 Smart Grid Development 2144.13 Smart Microgrid Renewable and Green Energy Systems 2164.14 A Power Grid Steam Generator 2234.15 Power Grid Modeling 234Problems 240References 2455 Solar Energy Systems 2475.1 Introduction 2475.2 The Solar Energy Conversion Process: Thermal Power Plants 2515.3 Photovoltaic Power Conversion 2535.4 Photovoltaic Materials 2535.5 Photovoltaic Characteristics 2555.6 Photovoltaic Efficiency 2585.7 The Design of Photovoltaic Systems 2625.8 The Modeling of a Photovoltaic Module 2775.9 The Measurement of Photovoltaic Performance 2785.10 The Maximum Power Point of a Photovoltaic Array 2785.11 A Battery Storage System 2925.12 A Storage System Based on a Single-Cell Battery 2945.13 The Energy Yield of a Photovoltaic Module and the Angle of Incidence 3175.14 The State of Photovoltaic Generation Technology 318Problems 318References 3266 Microgrid Wind Energy Systems 3286.1 Introduction 3286.2 Wind Power 3296.3 Wind Turbine Generators 3316.4 The Modeling of Induction Machines 3346.4.1 Calculation of Slip 3436.4.2 The Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Machine 3436.5 Power Flow Analysis of an Induction Machine 3466.6 The Operation of an Induction Generator 3516.7 Dynamic Performance 3666.8 The Doubly Fed Induction Generator 3726.9 Brushless Doubly Fed Induction Generator Systems 3756.10 Variable-Speed Permanent Magnet Generators 3766.11 A Variable-Speed Synchronous Generator 3776.12 A Variable-Speed Generator with a Converter Isolated from the Grid 378Problems 380References 3847 Load Flow Analysis of Power Grids and Microgrids 3867.1 Introduction 3867.2 Voltage Calculation in Power Grid Analysis 3877.3 The Power Flow Problem 3917.4 Load Flow Study as a Power System Engineering Tool 3927.5 Bus Types 3927.6 General Formulation of the Power Flow Problem 3977.7 Algorithm for Calculation of Bus Admittance Model 4007.7.1 The History of Algebra, Algorithm, and Number Systems 4007.7.2 Bus Admittance Algorithm 4027.8 The Bus Impedance Algorithm 4037.9 Formulation of the Load Flow Problem 4047.10 The Gauss–Seidel YBUS Algorithm 4077.11 The Gauss–Seidel ZBUS Algorithm 4127.12 Comparison of the YBUS and ZBUS Power Flow Solution Methods 4197.13 The Synchronous and Asynchronous Operation of Microgrids 4207.14 An Advanced Power Flow Solution Method: The Newton–Raphson Algorithm 4227.14.1 The Newton–Raphson Algorithm 4257.15 General Formulation of the Newton–Raphson Algorithm 4307.16 The Decoupled Newton–Raphson Algorithm 4347.17 The Fast Decoupled Load Flow Algorithm 4357.18 Analysis of a Power Flow Problem 436Problems 448References 4618 Power Grid and Microgrid Fault Studies 4628.1 Introduction 4628.2 Power Grid Fault Current Calculation 4648.3 Symmetrical Components 4688.4 Sequence Networks for Power Generators 4738.5 The Modeling of Wind and PV Generating Stations 4768.6 Sequence Networks for Balanced Three-Phase Transmission Lines 4778.7 Ground Current Flow in Balanced Three-Phase Transformers 4798.8 Zero Sequence Network 4818.8.1 Transformers 4818.8.2 Load Connections 4828.8.3 Power Grid 4848.9 Fault Studies 4878.9.1 Balanced Three-Phase Fault Analysis 4908.9.2 Unbalanced Faults 5088.9.3 Single-Line-to-Ground Faults 5088.9.4 Double-Line-to-Ground Faults 5118.9.5 Line-to-Line Faults 513Problems 527References 5339 Smart Devices and Energy Efficiency Monitoring Systems 5349.1 Introduction 5349.2 Kilowatt-Hour Measurements 5359.3 Current and Voltage Measurements 5369.4 Power Measurements at 60 or 50HZ 5379.5 Analog-to-Digital Conversions 5389.6 Root Mean Square (RMS) Measurement Devices 5389.7 Energy Monitoring Systems 5399.8 Smart Meters 5399.9 Power Monitoring and Scheduling 5409.10 Communication Systems 5419.11 Network Security and Software 5439.12 Smartphone Applications 5469.13 Summary 546Problems 547Further Reading 54810 Load Estimation and Classification 54910.1 Introduction 54910.2 Load Estimation of a Residential Load 54910.3 Service Feeder and Metering 55710.3.1 Assumed Wattages 557Problems 560References 56211 Energy Saving and Cost Estimation of Incandescent and Light-Emitting Diodes 56311.1 Building Lighting with Incandescent Bulbs 56311.2 Comparative Performance of LED, Incandescent, and LFC Lighting 56411.3 Building Load Estimation 56611.4 Led Energy Saving 56911.5 Return on Investment on LED Lighting 57111.6 Annual Carbon Emissions 572Problems 572References 572Appendix A Complex Numbers 573Appendix B Transmission Line and Distribution Typical Data 576Appendix C Energy Yield of Photovoltaic Panels and Angle of Incidence 581Appendix D Wind Power 594Index 599