From Ideologies to Public Philosophies

Paul Schumaker is Professor of Political Science at the University of Kansas, where he has taught courses in political theory and community politics since 1972. Dr. Schumaker has authored several books on political theory, including Critical Pluralism, Democratic Performance, and Community Power (1991).

• Preface xii1 Constructing Our Public Philosophies 1Public Philosophies and Political Ideologies 1Political Theory 3Searching for an Underlying Consensus Within Pluralism 13Ideas Beyond the Underlying Consensus of Pluralism 15Conclusions 20Part I Participants in our Political Conversations 232 Voices from the Major Ideologies of the Nineteenth Century 27Classical Liberalism: Building Democratic Capitalism 27Traditional Conservatism: Defending the Old Social Order 31Anarchism: Rebelling Against Authority 37Marxism: Pursuing a Classless Society 39Conclusions 423 Prominent Totalitarian and Pluralist Voices of the Twentieth Century 46Communism: Fighting Imperialism in Developing Societies 47Fascism and Nazism: Totalitarian Control to Strengthen the Collective 52Contemporary Liberalism: Reforming Capitalism and Democracy 56Contemporary Conservatism: Opposing Liberal and Socialist Programs 63Conclusions 704 Radical and Extreme Voices in Contemporary Politics 74The Radical Left: Seeking More Egalitarian and Communal Societies 77The Radical Right: Seeking More Economic Freedom or Moral Consensus 85The Extreme Right: Returning to More Homogeneous Societies 91The Extreme Left: Deconstructing Global Neoliberalism 93Conclusions 96Part II Philosophical Assumptions: Their Importance as Foundations for Political Principles 1015 Questions of Ontology 107Traditional Conservatives: Emphasizing the “Great Chain of Being” 109Classical Liberals: Deism, Naturalism, and Materialism 110Anarchists: Natural Interconnections, Ideas, and Conflicts 111Marxists: Economic Determinism 113Communists: Revising Dialectical Materialism 117Fascists and Nazis: Heroic Will and Racial Struggle 119Contemporary Liberals: Deemphasizing Ontology and Embracing Contingency 121Contemporary Conservatives: Appreciating the World As It Is 123The Radical Right: Refuting Charges of Economic and Divine Determination 124The Extreme Right: Expecting a Divine Apocalypse 126The Radical Left: Tempering Material Forces with Socialist Ideals 127The Extreme Left: Releasing Human Imagination, Constrained by Ecological Limits 128Conclusions 1306 Questions of Human Nature 133Classical Liberals: Humans as Equal and Rational Pursuers of Happiness 135Traditional Conservatives: Defining Humans by their Places in Society 137Anarchists: Seeing Human Altruism as Hindered by Conventional Institutions 138Marxists: Conceiving Humans as Creative Laborers 139Communists: Creating a “New Man” 141Fascists and Nazis: Energizing the Will of “the Herd” 142Contemporary Liberals: Fostering Autonomy, Reason, and Moral Development 143The Radical Left: Stressing our Common Humanity and Individual Differences 145Contemporary Conservatives: Accepting Human Imperfection 147The Radical Right: Embedding Humans in Moral Communities and/or Free Markets 149The Extreme Right: Regarding Humans as either Good or Evil 151The Extreme Left: Rejecting an Essential Human Nature 152Conclusions 1537 Questions of Society 155Classical Liberals: Individuals Seeking Mutual Benefits Through a Social Contract 156Traditional Conservatives: Organic Societies that Come Before Individuals 158Anarchists: Natural Societies Built on Friendship 160Marxists: Transforming Class-Based Societies into Classless Ones 161Communists: Non-Proletarian Contributions to a Classless Society 163Fascists and Nazis: Defining Society in Nationalist and Racist Terms 164Contemporary Liberals: Promoting Social Pluralism 165Contemporary Conservatives: Seeing Society as a Delicate Watch 166The Radical Right: Holding either Communitarian or Libertarian Visions of Society 168The Radical Left: Searching for More Communal and Egalitarian Societies 168The Extreme Right: Seeking Homogeneous Societies 170The Extreme Left: Longing for Societies of “Singularities Pursuing the Common” 171Conclusions 1728 Questions of Epistemology 175Classical Liberals: Moving from Natural Rights to Utilitarianism 177Traditional Conservatives: Doubting Reason, Stressing Conventional Wisdom 180Anarchists: Depending on a Vision of Human and Social Possibility 182Marxists: A Science Showing the Inevitability, not the Goodness, of Communism 183Communists: Generating Truths from Authoritative Readings of Marx 185Fascists and Nazis: Finding Absolute Truth in the Intuitions of a Political Leader 186Contemporary Liberals: Emphasizing Pragmatism 187Contemporary Conservatives: Using a Social Science of Political Failure 190The Radical Right: Finding Meaning in Tradition and Truth through Science 192The Radical Left: Emphasizing Political Rationality 194The Extreme Right: Finding Truth in Authoritative Texts and Leaders 197The Extreme Left: Contesting and Deconstructing all Truths 198Conclusions 199Part III The Great Issues of Politics: Consensual and Contested Principles 2039 Questions of Community 207Classical Liberals: Presupposing the Primacy of Nations 208Traditional Conservatives: Patriots Lacking Nationalist Fervor 210Anarchists: Rejecting Conventional Communities While Seeking Natural Ones 212Marxists: Identifying with the Working Class and Eventually Humanity 213Communists: Fighting Imperialism Through Nationalist Appeals 214Fascists and Nazis: Embracing a Unified Nation and an Aryan State 215Contemporary Liberals: Nations Built on Individual and Group Differences 216Contemporary Conservatives: Seeking Moral, but not Communitarian, Countries 218The Radical Right: Competing Global, National, and Sub-National Loyalties 220The Radical Left: Pursuing Solidarity Among Diverse People in Many Polities 223The Extreme Right: Rejecting Multiple Community Identities 225The Extreme Left: Deconstructing Current Identities 226Conclusions 22810 Questions of Citizenship 232Classical Liberals: Curbing Citizenship, Providing Limited Rights and Obligations 233Traditional Conservatives: Stressing Loyalty and Obedience to Authorities 235Anarchists: Comrades Without Political Obligations 237Marxists: Transforming Alienated Workers into Public-Spirited Comrades 238Communists: Transforming Oppressed People into Obedient Revolutionaries 239Fascists and Nazis: Mobilizing Dutiful Citizens for Purposes of State 240Contemporary Liberals: Pursuing Inclusion and Expanding Rights 241Contemporary Conservatives: Developing More Responsible Citizens 245The Radical Right: Privileging Property Rights and Instilling Virtue 248The Radical Left: Embracing Multiple and Deep Citizenships 250The Extreme Right: Restricting Citizenship 254The Extreme Left: Changing Passive Citizens into Contentious Ones 255Conclusions 25611 Questions of Structure 260Classical Liberals: Designing Free Markets and Representative Democracies 261Traditional Conservatives: Emphasizing Civil Society and Cultural Norms 264Anarchists: Rejecting All Conventional Structures 266Marxists: Stressing the Oppression of Capitalism 268Communists: Emphasizing Party Organizations 269Fascists and Nazis: Empowering Totalitarian States 271Contemporary Liberals: Balancing and Integrating Government and Capitalism 272Contemporary Conservatives: Reining in Strong States 276The Radical Right: More Freedom in The Marketplace and Less Cultural Freedom 277The Radical Left: Pursuing Market Socialism and Democratic Cultures 280The Extreme Right: Seeking Theocracies 283The Extreme Left: Fighting Globalization and Other Forms of Domination 285Conclusions 28612 Questions of Rulers 289Classical Liberals: Empowering Representatives While Holding Them Accountable 290Traditional Conservatives: Finding a Place for Elitism Within Democracy 292Anarchists: Rejecting All Rulers 293Marxists: The Need for a Temporary Dictatorship of the Proletariat 293Communists: The Need for a Vanguard of the Proletariat 295Fascists and Nazis: Concentrating Power in the Hands of a Single Ruler 296Contemporary Liberals: More Representative and Responsive Democracies 297The Radical Left: More Inclusive and Participatory Democracies 300Contemporary Conservatives: More Formal Representative Democracy 302The Radical Right: Democracy as Freedom 304The Extreme Right: Imagining Conspiracies 307The Extreme Left: Seeing Formidable Obstacles to Radical and Global Democracy 308Conclusions 31013 Questions of Authority 314Classical Liberals: Authorizing Limited Governments that Secure (Property) Rights 316Traditional Conservatives: Orchestrating Social Harmony 318Anarchists: Rejecting All Governmental Authority 320Marxists: Authority As Oppressive, Then Necessary, and Finally Eliminated 322Communists: Justifying Massive Authority as a Means to Abolish the State 322Fascists and Nazis: Embracing Totalitarian State Authority 324Contemporary Liberalism: From Limited Government to a Strong State 326Contemporary Conservatives: Limiting the Activity of Governments 329The Radical Right: Starving Government While Imposing Social Regulations 331The Radical Left: Enhancing the Public Sphere 334The Extreme Right: Resisting Authority that Disregards Sacred Texts 339The Extreme Left: Contesting Governmental Authority 340Conclusions 34114 Questions of Justice 343Classical Liberals: Equal Dignity but Unequal Rewards 345Traditional Conservatives: Unequal Rights but Commensurate Responsibilities 347Anarchists: Right Conduct in the Absence of Just Institutions 350Marxists: Transcending the Circumstances of Justice 352Communists: Using Social Control to Build a Society in which All Needs are Met 354Fascists and Nazis: National or Racial Dominance as More Important than Justice 355Contemporary Liberals: Compensating for Undeserved Disadvantages 355The Radical Left: Pursuing a More Egalitarian Society 359Contemporary Conservatives: Criticizing Social Justice, Emphasizing Compassion 366The Radical Right: Focusing on Fair Procedures and the Pursuit of the Common Good 369The Extreme Right: Regarding Moral Goodness as the Basis of Just Outcomes 372The Extreme Left: Decrying Global Injustice while Striving to Share “the Common” 373Conclusions 37515 Questions of Change 377Classical Liberals: Seeking Economic, Intellectual, and Moral Progress 378Traditional Conservatives: Slowing the Winds of Change 381Marxists: Predicting Revolution From Below 382Anarchists: Calling for Rebellion rather than Revolution 384Communists: Generating Revolutions While Deviating From Marxist Orthodoxy 386Fascists and Nazis: Revolutionary Change Toward Certain Conservative Values 389Contemporary Liberals: Achieving Fundamental Change Incrementally 390Contemporary Conservatives: Pursuing Reforms – of “Failed” Liberal Programs 392The Radical Right: Seeking Major Changes, even if they Enhance Inequalities 393The Extreme Right: Returning to a Past of Greater Moral Certainty 396The Radical Left: Evolutionary Change Toward More Democratic Equality 397The Extreme Left: Wholesale and Ongoing Change – Without Revolutions 399Conclusions 403Notes 406References 442Index 458

"The strengths of this work are many. Schumaker's schematic analysis of political ideas is thorough but never pedantic, and he illustrates his analysis with frequent and compelling examples. The result is a thoughtfully written text which will invite students into an interconnected dialogue about their most basic political beliefs. Students whose first exposure to political ideologies and philosophies comes through Schumaker's book will appreciate better not only their own opinions, but will have a better grasp of the advantages and limitations of a pluralistic system like our own, which allows other people's opinions to flourish as well."Russell Arben Fox, Friends University